Alas'ka, the largest state in the United States, occupying the extreme northwestern portion of North America and a narrow strip along the pacific coast southward to British Columbia. It extends from latitude 54 deg. 40' to 71 deg. 30' north, and from longitude 130 deg. to 168 deg. west from Greenwich, with its farthest point 187 deg. west. The greatest length from north to south and east to west is nearly equal, being about 800 miles; the area in round numbers is 591,000 square miles, which is more than twice the area of Texas. The western coast is extended by two large inlets, Norton Sound on the south and Kotzebue Sound on the north of Seward Peninsula, which extends within 48 miles of East Cape in Kamtchatka. The coast line has an extent of 8,000 miles, which is greater than the entire Atlantic coast line of the United States. SURFACE AND DRAINAGE. The mountains and rivers divide Alaska into four districts, as follows: 1. The Coast District, extending along the coast from British Columbia to the beginning of Alaska Peninsula and inland to the coast range of the Alaskan Mountains. It has a width varying from 30 to 75 miles and includes a number of adjacent islands. This district is famous for its glaciers, which fill the heads of many of the narrow inlets. Those around the narrow inlets. Those around the head of Lynn Canal and Glacier Bay are best known (See MUIR GLACIER). The principal rivers of this region are the Copper, with its tributary, the Chichitna, and the Matanuska, Knit and Suchitna, all flowing into Cook's Inlet. The Suchitna is navigable for about 110 miles, and its tributary, the Yetna, for about 100 miles. The coast district is bounded on the north by the principal range of the Alaskan Mountains, which form a watershed between it and the Kuskokwim and Tanana rivers. This is the highest mountain range in North America and culminates in Mount McKinley, which has an altitude of 20,464 feet. 2. The Alaskan and Aleutian District. This projection is formed by a continuation of the mountains in a southwestward direction. The chain of islands, about 150 in number, is a series of mountain peaks projecting above the sea and reaching almost to the Asiatic coast. All are extinct volcanoes, and some have an altitude of 8000 feet. 3. The Kuskokwim District. This includes the basin of the Kuskokwim River and contains a large area suitable for settlement. 4. The Yukon District. This embraces all of the territory from the southern watershed of the Yukon basin to the Arctic Ocean. In the eastern portion it is mountainous, but to the north and west it consists of a low, gradually sloping plain. The Yukon receives two important tributaries, the Tanana from the south and the Porcupine from the north. See YUKON RIVER. CLIMATE. Each topographical district differs from the others in climate and soil. The coast district is protected from the winds from the north by the high mountain barrier that forms its inland boundary. It is also subject to the influence of the warm Pacific or Japan Current. For these reasons it has a much warmer climate than those portion of the eastern coast of the continent having the same latitude. The thermometer seldom rises above 80 deg. or falls below zero. The condensation by the mountains of the moisture from the Pacific causes and abundance of rain, and fogs usually prevail, except in Cook's Inlet, which for some reason is free from them. The temperature of the Alaskan and Aleutian district averages a little lower than that of the Coast district, while that of the Kuskokwim has an average of zero for mid-winter and of 50 deg. for summer. The vast interior, both north and south of the Yukon, has an Arctic climate. The winters are cold and long and the summers short and warm. The Yukon is navigable only from June 15 to September 15, and the harbors on Bering Sea are blockaded with pack ice for about the same length of time as the river remains frozen, though the temperature on Norton Sound is milder than in the interior. MINERALS. Much of the interior is still unexplored and the mineral resources are not fully known. Coal. Coal lignite of a rather poor quality has been discovered in the vicinity of Cape Lis-burne and in a number of other places along the Arctic coast, and it has occasionally been used by ships cruising in these waters. Coal is also found along the Yukon and on the Aleutian Islands, on Kenai Peninsula, at the head of Prince William Sound and in other places. Gold. Although the presence of gold along the beds of the rivers was known to the Russians, no prospecting occurred during their occupation of the country, as it was against the policy of the government. In 1870 Americans began prospecting and soon discovered placers and veins of varying richness. The most important of these was on Douglas Island, where a mining camp was soon opened and work on the placers was begun. Soon after, rich veins of quartz ore were discovered. Permanent works for operating the mines were erected and the town of Juneau was established. These mines have been operated with profit ever since, and many other paying mines have been opened in their vicinity. On Baranof Island, near Sitka, around the head of Lynn Canal, around other islands and on the mainland, at the head of Cook's Inlet and in other places the sand and gravel on the beach are found to contain gold in paying quantities. But the most remarkable development has been in the Yukon district, where gold was discovered in 1897. This discovery led to the prospecting of the entire valleys of the Yukon and its tributaries, and valuable deposits were found, both along the river beds and among the mountains, but they are not so rich as those of the Klondike region. Following these discoveries was that on the north shore of Norton Sound, where the sands of the beach and along neighboring streams have proved extraordinarily rich. Since 1899 the output from these mines has been about $7,000,000 a year. Successful mines are in operation near Dawson, Canada, and in a few other places. The annual output of gold for the territory is about $8,500,000. Other Minerals. Rich deposits of copper have been discovered in the Copper River country and on Prince of Wales Island, and silver ore occurs in a number of localities where gold is found. There are also petroleum beds, and on Prince of Wales Island valuable marble quarries have been opened. VEGETATION. The islands and mainland of the Coast district are covered with dense forests of evergreen trees, which extend up the mountains to the snow line. In these forests are found thousands of square miles of white pine, cedar, fir and Alaska spruce, all of which are valuable for lumber. West of Cross Sound and in the Kuskokwim valley the growth of trees is lighter, but the mountains and hills at the head of this valley are quite heavily timbered. The valley of the Yukon contains but few trees, but during summer sustains an abundant growth of grass and other herbage. Along the Copper River are also large areas which produce luxuriant growths of grass. The tundras north of the Yukon contain little but Arctic vegetation. ANIMAL LIFE. The animals of Alaska are numerous. Commercially, a number of them are important on account of the value of their furs. These are the mink, Alaskan fox (white and blue fox), red and black foxes, the marten, the sea otter (now nearly extinct) and the fur seal. The seal fisheries are located on and around the Pribilof Islands and are under the control of the American Fur Company, which is restricted by the United States Government from taking over 30,000 seals a year. However, the capturing of the seals in the open sea by Canadian and Japanese vessels is depleting their numbers so rapidly that they will soon become extinct if the practice is continued. The common seal and the walrus are hunted by the natives, who make use of all parts of these animals for food, clothing and other domestic purposes. The reindeer and sledge dog are of great value to the inhabitants as beasts of burden. In summer many species of birds and insects are found. FISHERIES. The coast waters and rivers abound in fish. As yet only the salmon fisheries have been developed, and their output averages about $8,000,000 annually. The head-quarters of the industry are at Kodiak Island. The cod, halibut and herring fishing grounds are thought to be more extensive than those of the Atlantic coast, and in due time the taking of these fish will become an important industry. AGRICULTURE. Until recently Alaska has not been considered as a possible agricultural country, and it is too far north ever to attain to an important position in this industry. However, the possibilities are greater than were formerly supposed. The line which marks the northern limit of cereals extends across the territory from a little north of Eagle City to Saint Michaels. South of this, wheat, oats, rye and barley ripen, and the soil is of such fertility that it yields good crops. Garden vegetables are raised in the Yukon valley and as far north as Dawson. The abundance of wild grass assures a good hay crop, and live stock can be kept through the winter without difficulty. Large areas in the valleys of the Kuskokwim and Copper rivers and their tributaries are suitable for cultivation. A number of stock growers from Montana and other mountain states have established ranches on the Aleutian Islands, where conditions are especially favorable for grazing. TRANSPORTATION. During the open season all ports have regular and frequent communication with the northern ports of the Pacific coast. Regular lines of steamers ply between Seattle, Valdez, Kodiak, Saint Michaels and Nome. At Saint Michaels these steamers make connection with the Yukon steamers, which ascend the river as far as Dawson. Other lines of steamers ply between Seattle and Sitka, Juneau, Skagway and other coast towns. A railway is in operation from Skagway through White Pass and is to be extended to Dawson. Most of this line is in Canadian territory. The Alaskan Central railway has been projected and partially surveyed. It is to extend from Valdez through the Copper River valley to Tanana, thence westward to Nome, and a branch will also be built eastward to connect with the line from Skagway to Dawson. Nome is connected with Saint Michaels by cable and with Eagle City and Dawson by telegraph, and through the Canadian line terminating at Eagle City the leading settlements are in communication with the rest of the world. The United States mail is now delivered regularly at all settlements, though during the severest winter months these deliveries are at long intervals. The commerce of the territory is growing rapidly. In 1892 the foreign trade, including exports and imports, amounted to $28,366. In 1900 it was $72,462, and it now exceeds $25,000,000 a year, exclusive of gold and silver. GOVERNMENT. Alaska became the 49th state of the Union on January 3, 1959. Its capital is Juneau. EDUCATION. A few schools are maintained by the United States bureau of education, for which a limited government support is granted. The larger settlements are also allowed the privilege of using a portion of the revenue obtained from licenses and other fees in support of schools. There are no higher institutions of learning in the territory. CITIES AND TOWNS. Previous to 1897 Sitka and Juneau were the only towns of importance, but since the discovery of gold, several towns have sprung up, and some of them have grown rapidly. Sitka, on Baranof Island, is the oldest town. Juneau, at the entrance of Taku Inlet, since 1906 the seat of government, had a population of about 3,000 in 1910, and is the center of a mining industry. Skagway is the seaport of the White Pass railway, and Eagle City is on the Yukon, at the point where it crosses the Canadian boundary. In the early 1900s, Nome, on Norton Sound, had a population of 25,000. Anchorage is now the largest city in Alaska. See JUNEAU; NOME; SITKA. INHABITANTS. The native inhabitants include three races: the Eskimos, who occupy the country north of the Yukon; the Athabaskan Indians, who inhabit the mountainous regions in the eastern portion of the valley of the Yukon and southward as far as Cook's Inlet, and the Aleuts, who occupy the Aleutian Islands. The Thilnkeets, who formerly occupied the coast and islands from Puget Sound to Yakatat Bay, are nearly extinct. In 1900 the native population numbered 29,500, more than half of whom were Eskimos. Population in 1910, 64,356, a gain of 764 in ten years. HISTORY. The peninsula and islands of Alaska were first explored by a Dane, Vitus Bering, in the employ of Russia, in 1740. The first settlement was made on Kodiak Island in 1784, and fifteen years later, with the organization of the Russian-American Fur Company, a vigorous trade and missionary policy was adopted in the region; but the inhospitable climate led to serious financial losses, and Russia ceded the territory to the United States in 1867 for $7,200,000. In 1900 it became a judicial and civil district under the control of Congress. Two important international controversies have arisen in connection with Alaska within recent years: one, the control of the seal fisheries, the other, the boundary between Canada and Alaska. The former was based upon the claim of the United States that Bering Sea was a closed sea, subject to the control of Russia and the United States, and that unlicensed fishermen should not be allowed to kill seals, even though outside the three-mile boundary of either of these countries. The claim was referred to a commission, which decided against this contention, but also favored such restrictions on the killing of seas as would save the industry. The boundary controversy arose over the interpretation of a treaty between Russia and Great Britain, which specified that the boundary should follow the windings of the coast and should be fixed ten marine leagues inland. Was the line to be ten leagues inland from the coast of the outer islands, or from the coast of the mainland? The question was of little importance until the discovery of gold in the so-called Klondike region in this disputed territory. After several attempts to adjust the difficulty by negotiation, the question was referred to a commission consisting of three representatives of the United States and three of Great Britain. The decision was rendered in October, 1903, and was substantially in favor of the American claim. By the decision part of the gold fields recently discovered are in Canadian territory and part in American territory, but the vast Pacific coast line is wholly within the control of the United States.